Differential Association

Differential association is a theory of criminal behavior, proposed by Edwin Sutherland, which holds that crime is learned through interaction with others in intimate groups, who communicate definitions that are either favorable or unfavorable to violating the law. In Principles of Criminology, Sutherland argued that a person becomes delinquent when exposure to definitions favorable to law violation outweighs exposure to unfavorable ones, and that associations vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. The theory grew out of the Chicago School’s emphasis on cultural transmission, as seen in Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay’s studies of delinquency in urban areas, and it challenged biological and psychological explanations such as those of Cesare Lombroso. Sutherland’s work on white-collar crime showed that respectable business people also learn criminal norms. Donald Cressey helped refine and spread the theory, and Ronald Akers integrated it with behavioral principles in social learning theory. Gresham Sykes and David Matza’s techniques of neutralization describe the rationalizations learned in such groups. Critics argue that the theory is difficult to test and ignores individual choice and personality. Differential association remains central to research on crime, delinquency, peer influence, and socialization.